Measures time-of-flight of sound waves reflected from the water surface, providing non-contact distance to water.

Measures hydrostatic pressure exerted by the water column above it, directly inferring water depth.

Utilizes multiple sealed float switches positioned at discrete levels to indicate when water reaches specific thresholds.

Combines a digital barometer, thermometer, and hygrometer (BME280) with a separate tipping bucket mechanism to measure rainfall accumulation.

Detects raindrops by sensing changes in infrared light transmission or reflection caused by water on a sensing surface.

Dual-core processor with integrated Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, capable of processing sensor data and managing communication protocols efficiently.

Designed specifically for ultra-low-power applications, offering excellent energy efficiency and robust performance for battery-operated devices.

Simple 8-bit microcontroller known for its ease of use, low cost, and extensive community support, with potential for low-power optimization.

Provides basic lithium-ion battery charging from a solar panel and a regulated output voltage for the sensor electronics.

Maximizes power extraction from the solar panel by dynamically adjusting impedance, ensuring efficient battery charging and extending battery lifespan.

A self-contained unit typically includes a small solar panel, battery, and basic charge controller, which can be modified to power the sensor system.

Utilizes Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) protocol for low-power, long-distance wireless data transmission to a gateway.

Leverages existing cellular infrastructure for Low-Power Wide-Area (LPWA) communication optimized for IoT devices.

Communicates directly with satellites, providing global coverage even in the most remote locations where terrestrial networks are unavailable.

Uses an electromagnet to physically switch a contact, isolating the microcontroller's low-voltage circuit from the siren's high-power circuit.

Uses semiconductor components to switch power to the siren, offering electronic switching without moving parts.

Utilizes a power MOSFET to switch the positive supply to the siren, controlled by a low-voltage signal from the microcontroller.

Cloud-based IoT platforms that provide pre-built dashboards, data storage, and basic alerting capabilities, simplifying data visualization and access.

Leverages robust and scalable cloud infrastructure to build a fully customizable data ingestion, processing, storage, and visualization pipeline.

Deploys open-source data visualization (Grafana) and time-series database (InfluxDB) software on a virtual private server for full control over the data stack.